Antarctic Specially Protected Areas Research Articles

Survey of a snow petrel nesting site in a remote high mountain region to inform designation of an Antarctic Specially Protected Area

Despite the sensitivity of ecosystems in extreme conditions, only 0.029% of the Antarctic continent is currently granted special protection as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA). Additionally, protected areas are unevenly distributed and unrepresentative of the biodiversity of Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties are thus striving to establish a more coherent network of protected areas. In this context, the Otto-von-Gruber-Gebirge was identified as an area highly worthy of protection due to its unique ecosystem including one of the largest snow petrel breeding sites, and relative pristine nature. However, in the process of designation, an update of knowledge, particularly of the population status of snow petrel in the area, was recognized to be needed. This study was aimed at estimating a population census of snow petrel breeding pairs in the Lake Untersee catchment, an important subarea of the potentially protected area. Investigations were severely limited by the remoteness and harsh conditions of the area, enabling only a short fieldwork period with limited resources. Thus, a combination of remote sensing and traditional methods was applied. We conducted a ground survey of a smaller reference area, including locating nest sites and assessing nest site characteristics. Snow petrels usually nest in the cavities of large boulders and we thus classified habitat suitability based on boulder presence. To do so, the study area was remotely surveyed by unpiloted aerial vehicles to gain orthophotomosaics in sufficient resolution to distinguish on-ground conditions for breeding. We then calculated nest site densities for the reference area. We also studied nest site data such as nest cavity depth, orientation, and attendance to gain basic knowledge of the characteristics of the breeding site. Finally, we measured a sample of four live snow petrels to determine which morph was present at the site. We were able to obtain nest site data and to extrapolate it, which produced population numbers of 11,765 breeding pairs for the whole study area. This underpins the size of the breeding site and thereby its importance for the species.

Monitoring of Antarctica's Fragile Vegetation Using Drone-Based Remote Sensing, Multispectral Imagery and AI.

Vegetation in East Antarctica, such as moss and lichen, vulnerable to the effects of climate change and ozone depletion, requires robust non-invasive methods to monitor its health condition. Despite the increasing use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to acquire high-resolution data for vegetation analysis in Antarctic regions through artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, the use of multispectral imagery and deep learning (DL) is quite limited. This study addresses this gap with two pivotal contributions: (1) it underscores the potential of deep learning (DL) in a field with notably limited implementations for these datasets; and (2) it introduces an innovative workflow that compares the performance between two supervised machine learning (ML) classifiers: Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and U-Net. The proposed workflow is validated by detecting and mapping moss and lichen using data collected in the highly biodiverse Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) 135, situated near Casey Station, between January and February 2023. The implemented ML models were trained against five classes: Healthy Moss, Stressed Moss, Moribund Moss, Lichen, and Non-vegetated. In the development of the U-Net model, two methods were applied: Method (1) which utilised the original labelled data as those used for XGBoost; and Method (2) which incorporated XGBoost predictions as additional input to that version of U-Net. Results indicate that XGBoost demonstrated robust performance, exceeding 85% in key metrics such as precision, recall, and F1-score. The workflow suggested enhanced accuracy in the classification outputs for U-Net, as Method 2 demonstrated a substantial increase in precision, recall and F1-score compared to Method 1, with notable improvements such as precision for Healthy Moss (Method 2: 94% vs. Method 1: 74%) and recall for Stressed Moss (Method 2: 86% vs. Method 1: 69%). These findings contribute to advancing non-invasive monitoring techniques for the delicate Antarctic ecosystems, showcasing the potential of UAVs, high-resolution multispectral imagery, and ML models in remote sensing applications.

A Green Fingerprint of Antarctica: Drones, Hyperspectral Imaging, and Machine Learning for Moss and Lichen Classification

Mapping Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) remains a critical yet challenging task, especially in extreme environments like Antarctica. Traditional methods are often cumbersome, expensive, and risky, with limited satellite data further hindering accuracy. This study addresses these challenges by developing a workflow that enables precise mapping and monitoring of vegetation in ASPAs. The processing pipeline of this workflow integrates small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)—or drones—to collect hyperspectral and multispectral imagery (HSI and MSI), global navigation satellite system (GNSS) enhanced with real-time kinematics (RTK) to collect ground control points (GCPs), and supervised machine learning classifiers. This workflow was validated in the field by acquiring ground and aerial data at ASPA 135, Windmill Islands, East Antarctica. The data preparation phase involves a data fusion technique to integrate HSI and MSI data, achieving the collection of georeferenced HSI scans with a resolution of up to 0.3 cm/pixel. From these high-resolution HSI scans, a series of novel spectral indices were proposed to enhance the classification accuracy of the model. Model training was achieved using extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), with four different combinations tested to identify the best fit for the data. The research results indicate the successful detection and mapping of moss and lichens, with an average accuracy of 95%. Optimised XGBoost models, particularly Model 3 and Model 4, demonstrate the applicability of the custom spectral indices to achieve high accuracy with reduced computing power requirements. The integration of these technologies results in significantly more accurate mapping compared to conventional methods. This workflow serves as a foundational step towards more extensive remote sensing applications in Antarctic and ASPA vegetation mapping, as well as in monitoring the impact of climate change on the Antarctic ecosystem.

Sex‐specific mercury levels in skin samples of southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) at Isla 25 de Mayo (King George Island), Antarctic Peninsula

AbstractThe southern elephant seal (SES; Mirounga leonina) has a circumpolar distribution, breeding mainly on sub‐Antarctic islands and making long trips between breeding or molting and foraging areas. Most individuals from colonies in the South Shetland Islands (western Antarctic Peninsula; WAP) are distributed in Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPA). Despite these protected habitats, pollutants can reach such remote areas far away from emission sources, affecting local fauna. To assess possible mercury (Hg) contamination in SES, we analyzed skin samples collected from free‐ranging molting individuals using the remote biopsy PAXARMS system in Isla 25 de Mayo/King George Island (62°15′S, 58°39′W; ASPA 132). Hairless skin samples were analyzed to determine total‐Hg (THg) concentrations, which ranged between 145 ng/g and 1,915 ng/g (M = 730, SD = 388 ng/g), showing significant differences between sexes, with adult‐females having higher concentrations (range = 306–1,915, M = 859, SD = 427 ng/g dw) than subadult‐males (range = 145–1,645, M = 629, SD = 329 ng/g dw). These differences may be explained mainly by feeding‐niche partitioning between sexes. Females prefer mesopelagic prey or prey associated with sea‐ice in the WAP, which are enriched in methylmercury. These results provide insight regarding Hg contamination in top Antarctic predators like SES, and the need to monitor for potential effects of Hg contamination in Antarctic marine mammals.

Issue Information

Conservation BiologyVolume 37, Issue 3 e13951 ISSUE INFORMATIONFree Access Issue Information - Copyright page First published: 29 May 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13951AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Graphical Abstract Cover: Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) jumping into the Ross Sea at Cape Crozier Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA). Antarctic ecosystems are menaced by local and global threats, from climate change to tourism. Burrows et al. (e14059) provide a research and policy agenda to facilitate ASPA effectiveness and thus protect fragile Antarctic biodiversity. Volume37, Issue3June 2023e13951 RelatedInformation

Breeding Population and Nesting Habitat of Skuas in the Harmony Point Antarctic Specially Protected Area

Regular monitoring of breeding population abundance and environmental factors related to the nesting habitat has proven fundamental for seabird conservation. Harmony Point (Nelson Island) is an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) designated to manage and protect the high biological value of seabirds’ richness and abundance. However, due to the remote location of their breeding sites, many species lack updated population counts. Skuas (Catharacta sp.) exhibited a two-decade gap since the last census was conducted in Harmony Point. The abundance and spatial distribution of the nests of skuas were studied during the austral summer of 2019/2020. Through an exhaustive search, we counted and mapped active nests. Nesting habitat was assessed by the use of an unmanned aerial vehicle to take aerial pictures and build an orthomosaic image to determine vegetation in the area. Additionally, a digital elevation model was built to calculate a series of geomorphological-related variables. Suitability models were used to estimate the importance of variables to the nesting of skuas. A total of 71 brown skua (Catharacta antarctica) and 3 south polar skua (C. maccormicki) nests were counted. Two of the seven variables (terrain slope and vegetation cover) accounted for 57.5% ± 14.1% of the models’ variability; sun radiation incidence, and wind shielding were of secondary importance. Water flow accumulation, distance from penguin colonies, and terrain elevation were the least important variables. Skuas selected for nesting flat terrains (slope < 10°) with a vegetation cover of above 20%, slightly higher sun incidence (270 to 280 kW/h), and intermediary windshielding (45% to 55% of exposition). Considering previous estimates, the skua species at Harmony Point has kept an apparently stable population size over the last 25 years. However, expected changes in nesting habitat availability, i.e., increased snow-free area, increased wind intensity, changes in vegetation cover, and reduction of penguin populations, might change population size in the mid to long term.

The need for increased protection of Antarctica's inland waters

AbstractProtection of Antarctica's biodiversity and ecosystem values is enshrined in the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which provides for the designation of Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) to areas with outstanding values. Concern has been raised that existing ASPAs fail to prioritize areas to maximize the likelihood of ensuring the long-term conservation of Antarctic ecosystems and biodiversity. The absence of systematic and representative protection is particularly acute for inland aquatic ecosystems, which support a disproportionate amount of inland biodiversity. This paper promotes the case for overt inclusion of inland waters as a critical component of a representative protected area framework for Antarctica, thereby addressing their current underrepresentation. We set out a structured approach to enable the selection of representative freshwater systems for inclusion in the ASPA framework that, with modification, could also be applied across other Antarctic habitats. We acknowledge an overall lack of information on the biogeography of inland aquatic diversity and recommend increased use of remote data collection along with classification tools to mitigate this, as well as the need for the consideration of catchment-scale processes. Changes that accompany contemporary and anticipated climate change make the need for the conservation of representative biodiversity increasingly urgent.

Evaluating the conservation impact of Antarctica's protected areas.

Antarctic specially protected areas (ASPAs) are a key regulatory mechanism for protecting Antarctic environmental values. Previous evaluations of the effectiveness of the ASPA system focused on its representativeness and design characteristics, presenting a compelling rationale for its systematic revision. Upgrading the system could increase the representation of values within ASPAs, but representation alone does not guarantee the avoided loss or improvement of those values. Identifying factors that influence the effectiveness of ASPAs would inform the design and management of an ASPA system with the greatest capacity to deliver its intended conservation outcomes. To facilitate evaluations of ASPA effectiveness, we devised a research and policy agenda that includes articulating a theory of change for what outcomes ASPAs generate and how; building evaluation principles into ASPA design and designation processes; employing complementary approaches to evaluate multiple dimensions of effectiveness; and extending evaluation findings to identify and exploit drivers of positive conservation impact. Implementing these approaches will enhance the efficacy of ASPAs as a management tool, potentially leading to improved outcomes for Antarctic natural values in an era of rapid global change. Evaluación del impacto de conservación de las áreas protegidas de la Antártida.

Managing cumulative impacts and protected areas in Antarctica: what can we learn from the rest of the world?

For more than 20 years Antarctic Treaty Parties have been discussing how to appropriately manage cumulative impacts in the continent. Preventing cumulative impacts requires the fluent exchange of information to enable proper and timely assessment of, and response to, the impacts that result from multiple activities, undertaken by multiple stakeholders and supervised by different Parties. This is a particular challenge for the effective management of Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs), as a lack of coordination may potentially put at risk the fulfillment of their conservation objectives. Here we suggest that incorporating lessons learnt from protected areas management elsewhere might improve the effectiveness of ASPAs and provide valuable experiences and insights on how to better manage cumulative impacts in the rest of the continent. Key concepts to incorporate in Antarctica’s environmental management toolbox include (1) the notion of adaptive management, which is a cornerstone of protected areas management effectiveness elsewhere, and (2) the need of empowering protected area managers, which are a key (but often missing) element to ensure local compliance with management plans, co-ordinate on site activities, facilitate exchange of information, promote cooperation and manage conflicts.

Patterns of moss richness in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, cannot be explained by geological or ornithogenic drivers alone

AbstractWe set out to document the diversity and distribution of bryophytes in Admiralty Bay and thereby enable the identification of patterns in local diversity and their possible drivers. Combining data extracted from different sources and recent collections, we documented the presence of 63 species. Similarity analyses of moss species diversity in relation to underlying geology and ornithogenic influence identified an identical cophenetic correlation coefficient of 0.744 for both factors. The Sørensen index was < 0.6, indicating that the groups share < 60% of the species recorded. The data showed that the selected filters (ornithogenic soils, non-ornithogenic soils and different geological extracts) did not underlie consistent species groupings, and we conclude that other environmental and topographical factors are likely to be responsible for shaping the moss community structure in Admiralty Bay. To enable effective management of Antarctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA) No. 1 and Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No. 128, robust assessments of the local ecosystem and biodiversity are necessary to assist in the decision-making processes mandated under the Antarctic Treaty System, one of whose founding principles is the preservation of the Antarctic ecosystem.

Improving species-based area protection in Antarctica.

Area protection is a major mechanism deployed for environmental conservation in Antarctica. Yet, the Antarctic protected areas network is widely acknowledged as inadequate, in part because the criteria for area protection south of 60°S are not fully applied. The most poorly explored of these criteria is the type locality of species, which provides the primary legal means for Antarctic species-based area protection and a method for conserving species even if little is known about their habitat or distribution. The type locality criterion has not been systematically assessed since its incorporation into the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty in 1991, so the extent to which the criterion is being met or might be useful for area protection is largely unknown. To address the matter, we created and analyzed a comprehensive database of Antarctic type localities of terrestrial and lacustrine lichens, plants, and animals. We compiled the database via a literature search of key taxonomic and geographic terms and then analyzed the distance between type localities identifiable to a ≤ 25km2 resolution and current Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) and human infrastructure. We used a distance-clustering approach for localities outside current ASPAs to determine candidate protected areas that could contain these unprotected localities. Of the 386 type localities analyzed, 108 were within or overlapped current ASPAs. Inclusion of the remaining 278 type localities in the ASPA network would require the designation of a further 105 protected areas. Twenty-four of these areas included human infrastructure disturbance. Given the slow rate of ASPA designation, growing pace of human impacts on the continent, and the management burden associated with ASPAs, we propose ways in which the type locality criterion might best be deployed. These include a comprehensive, systematic conservation planning approach and an alternative emphasis on the habitat of species, rather than on a single locality.

Antarctic Special Protected Area 161 as a Reference to Assess the Effects of Anthropogenic and Natural Impacts on Meiobenthic Assemblages

The Antarctic region is usually considered a pristine area. Nevertheless, regional warming effects and increasing human activities, including the presence of several research stations, are inducing considerable environmental changes that may affect the ecosystem’s functions. Therefore, during the XXXIII Antarctic expedition, we carried out an investigation in Terra Nova bay (Ross Sea), close to the Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) n.161. In particular, we compared the effects of two different types of impacts on the meiobenthic assemblages: anthropogenic impact (AI), associated with the activity of Mario Zucchelli Research Station (MZS), and natural impact (NI) attributable to a large colony of Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) in Adelie Cove. For each impacted site, a respective control site and two sampling depths (20 and 50 m) were selected. Several environmental variables (pH, dissolved oxygen, major and minor ions, heavy metals, organic load, and sediment grain size) were measured and analysed, to allow a comprehensive characterization of the sampling areas. According to the criteria defined by Unites States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA 2009), heavy metal concentrations did not reveal critical conditions. However, both the MZS (AI20) and penguin colony (NI20) sites showed higher heavy metal concentrations, the former due to human activities related to the Italian research station, with the latter caused by the penguins excrements. Meiobenthic richness and abundance values suggested that the worst ecological condition was consistently related to the Adélie penguins colony. Furthermore, the higher contribution of r-strategists corroborates the hypothesis that the chronic impact of the penguin colonies may have stronger effects on the meiobenthos than the human activities at the MZS. Food is not limited in shallow Antarctic bottoms, and microscale differences in primary and secondary production processes can likely explain the greater spatial heterogeneity, highlighted both by the univariate and multivariate attributes of meiobenthic assemblage (i.e., richness, diversity, abundance, whole structure assemblage, and rare taxa) at the deeper stations. As reported in other geographical regions, the assemblage structure of rare meiobenthic taxa is confirmed to be more susceptible to environmental variations, rather than the whole assemblage structure.

First Report of Diversity of Cyanobacteria of Broknes Peninsula of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica

Antarctica is an extreme environment and contains many unique geological, glaciological and biological features. However, due to changes in climatic conditions Antarctica is affected by Global warming. The Larsemann Hills area is located in East Antarctica approximately halfway between Vest fold Hills and Amery Ice Shelf on South-eastern coast of Prydz Bay which includes two main peninsulas, the western named Stornes and the eastern named Broknes. The Antarctic environment is highly sensitive and susceptible to the impacts of human activities and has much less natural ability to recover from disturbance than the environment of other continents. Due to coastal location and ice free landscape, Larsemann Hills is an attractive area for human activities which consit on scientific expeditions as well as touristic activities which are currently increasing. It is hypothesized that due to increase in land use pressure, the growth and diversity of Cyanobacteria in this area may be affected. The aim of this study was to record Cyanobacteria from freshwater bodies, rocks and terrestrial habitats. Considering the two main peninsulas, Stornes peninsula comes under the Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ACPA) so the samples were collected from diverse habitats of Broknes Peninsula. Altogether, 16 species of Cyanobacteria belonging to nine genera were recorded from diverse habitat of Broknes Peninsula of Larsemann Hills. This is the first Indian study report of Cyanobacteria of Broknes peninsula of Larsemann Hills. All species are reported for the first time and therefore constitutes new record from this area.

Genetic Approach on Sanionia uncinata (Hedw.) Loeske to Evaluate Representativeness of in situ Conservation Areas Among Protected and Neighboring Free Access Areas in Maritime Antarctica and Southern Patagonia

The Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) are zones with restricted access to protect outstanding environmental, scientific, historic, aesthetic, or wilderness values adopted inside the Antarctic Treaty System. Meanwhile, in southern Patagonia, conservation initiatives are implemented by the state of Chile and private entities. However, both are considered unrepresentative. Our work evaluates the representativeness of thein situconservation through a genetic approach of the mossSanionia uncinata(Hedw.) Loeske among protected and neighboring free access areas in Maritime Antarctica and southern Patagonia. We discuss observed presence with both current and reconstructed past potential niche distributions (11 and 6 ka BP) in the Fildes Peninsula on King George Island. Results showed occurrence of several spatially genetic subpopulations distributed inside and among ASPA and free access sites. Some free access sites showed a higher amount of polymorphism compared with ASPA, having ancestry in populations developed in those places since 6 ka BP. The different spatial and temporal hierarchies in the analysis suggest that places for conservation of this species in Maritime Antarctica are not well-represented, and that some free access areas should be considered. This work represents a powerful multidisciplinary approach and a great challenge for decision-makers to improve the management plans and the sustainable development in Antarctica.

Anthropogenic debris in an Antarctic Specially Protected Area in the maritime Antarctic

Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) provide the strongest environmental protection in Antarctica. However, they are not immune from anthropogenic pollution of marine or terrestrial origin. We document anthropogenic debris within ASPA No. 133 Harmony Point, Nelson Island, recovering 1544 items between November 2019 and January 2020. The majority (82.6 %) were found close to a national operator-constructed refuge and were smaller than 5 cm. Larger items (up to 300 cm) were present on beaches and plateaus. Charcoal and rubber were the most abundant items around the refuge and plastic and metal were the most abundant items on beaches and plateaus. Debris items likely arriving in the area by marine transportation (e.g. plastic) are of concern due to both risk of ingestion and their degradation leading to the release of hazardous chemicals. Such pollution contravenes the terms of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty and other regionally applicable regulations.

Mare incognita: Adélie penguins foraging in newly exposed habitat after calving of the Nansen Ice Shelf

Rapid environmental changes can dramatically and durably affect the animal's foraging behavior. In the Ross Sea (Antarctica), calving of the Nansen Ice Shelf in 2016 opened a newly accessible marine area of 214 km2. In this study, we examined the foraging behavior of Adélie penguins from the nearby Inexpressible Island in December 2018, by tracking 27 penguins during their at-sea trips using GPS, depth and video loggers. The penguins mainly foraged within 88.2 ± 42.9 km of their colony, for 23.4 ± 6.8 h. Five penguins headed south to the newly exposed habitat along the Nansen Ice Shelf, whereas 22 penguins exploited previously available foraging areas. There was no significant difference in any of the foraging trip or diving parameters between the two penguin groups; however, in the calved region the penguins were diving into shallow areas more often than did the other penguins. These results show that Adélie penguins on Inexpressible Island had explored the newly exposed area after calving. We conclude that the penguins respond to newly available habitat following stochastic environmental events, either through information sharing at the colony, and/or by balancing prey availability per capita across the foraging sites. Considering that this penguin breeding area is under investigation for the establishment of an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA), the results of this study may provide insights for evaluating the ecological importance of this area and formulating an ASPA management plan for conservation.

Developing resilience to climate change impacts in Antarctica: An evaluation of Antarctic Treaty System protected area policy

Antarctica is increasingly vulnerable to climate change impacts, with the continent predicted to warm by ∼4 °C by 2100 under a ‘business as usual’ greenhouse gas emission scenario. Simultaneously, human activity, primarily in the form of scientific research and the fishing and tourism industries, is putting increasing pressure on Antarctic and Southern Ocean environments and ecosystems. We evaluate the effectiveness of the Antarctic area protection system in promoting resilience to climate change impacts. Under the framework of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), terrestrial and marine areas can be designated to protect locations of scientific, environmental, historic and intrinsic value and to facilitate operational coordination to minimise environmental impact. However, climate change is not mentioned explicitly in the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty and is little considered in guidelines for the designation and management of the region’s existing protected areas. Climate change impacts are considered in only 17% of Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) management plans and, at a time when threats to Antarctic environments are increasing, the last decade has seen an 84% decline in ASPA designation rate compared with levels in the 1980s. Nevertheless, momentum is building within the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the ATS’s Committee on Environmental Protection (CEP) to deliver an evidence-based, integrated response to climate change that includes the use of protected areas. The Antarctic scientific community is well-placed to support decision-makers in the use of existing conservation management tools through provision of climate change forecasts at sub-regional scales, data on anticipated environmental change, and predicted species and ecosystems responses. Ultimately, reducing global greenhouse gas emission will provide the greatest protection from climate change impacts within Antarctica.

Glacier Geometry Changes in the Western Shore of Admiralty Bay, King George Island over the Last Decades.

This paper presents changes in the range and thickness of glaciers in Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No. 128 on King George Island in the period 1956–2015. The research indicates an intensification of the glacial retreat process over the last two decades, with the rate depending on the type of glacier front. In the period 2001–2015, the average recession rate of the ice cliffs of the Ecology Glacier and the northern part of the Baranowski Glacier was estimated to be approximately 15–25 m a−1 and 10–20 m a−1, respectively. Fronts of Sphinx Glacier and the southern part of the Baranowski Glacier, characterized by a gentle descent onto land, show a significantly lower rate of retreat (up to 5–10 m a−1 1). From 2001 to 2013, the glacier thickness in these areas decreased at an average rate of 1.7–2.5 m a−1 for the Ecology Glacier and the northern part of the Baranowski Glacier and 0.8–2.5 m a−1 for the southern part of the Baranowski Glacier and Sphinx Glacier. The presented deglaciation processes are related to changes of mass balance caused by the rapid temperature increase (1.0 °C since 1948). The work also contains considerations related to the important role of the longitudinal slope of the glacier surface in the connection of the glacier thickness changes and the front recession.

The harmonization of small-scale marine spatial protection in the Argentine Islands area (Antarctic Peninsula) under the Antarctic Treaty System

The purpose of the article is to summarize the results of field studies carried out in the framework of the State Antarctic Research Program for 2011–2020 and undertaken to identify areas of special interest for small-scale marine spatial protection in the Argentine Islands water area. The scientific results reported in the publications and relevant meetings’ documents officially presented by the Ukrainian delegation in 2012–2019 were summarized and interpreted in view of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) provisions on marine spatial protection. GIS analysis was applied to field data. It is shown that the development of protection regime for small-scale underwater landscape is based on systematic biogeographical data collected during seasonal and year-round Ukrainian Antarctic expeditions in 2011–2019. In order to harmonize the application of all available tools of spatial ecosystem-based protection across the ATS, it is proposed to designate the long-term environmental monitoring sites around Ukrainian Antarctic Akademik Vernadsky station as a new Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) consisting of terrestrial and marine components. It is shown that the marine component of the proposed ASPA could serve as one of the scientific reference areas of the broad-scale Marine Protected Area in Domain 1 within the Antarctic Peninsula region for assessing the impact of climate change on benthic communities, as well as breeding success and distribution of penguin colonies.

Phylotypic Characterization of Mycobionts and Photobionts of Rock Tripe Lichen in East Antarctica.

Saxicolous rock ripe lichens that grow on rocks in the East Antarctic fellfields were sampled for phylotypic characterization of its constituent mycobionts (fungi) and photobionts (algae and cyanobacteria). The rock tripe lichen-forming fungal and algal phylotypes were classified under the common lichen-forming genera of ascomycetes, namely, Umbilicaria, and green algae, namely, Trebouxia and Coccomyxa. However, phylotypes of the green algal chloroplasts and the lichen-associated cyanobacteria showed unexpectedly high diversity. The detected chloroplast phylotypes were not fully affiliated with the green algal genera Trebouxia or Coccomyxa. The predominant chloroplast phylotype demonstrated maximum resemblance to Neglectella solitaria, which is neither a known Antarctic species nor a typical lichen photobiont. Another dominant chloroplast phylotype belonged to the atypical Antarctic green algae family. Cyanobacterial phylotypes were dominated by those affiliated with the Microcoleus species rather than the well-known lichen-associates, Nostoc species. The occurrences of these Microcoleus-affiliated cyanobacterial phylotypes were specifically abundant within the Yukidori Valley site, one of the Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPA). The ASPA site, along with another 50 km-distant site, yielded most of the cryptic diversity in the phylotypes of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, which may contribute to the phenotypic variability within the rock tripe lichen photobionts.